Violence in German and Soviet Occupied Poland, 1939-1941

On 1 September 1939 Nazi Germany attacked Poland. Since Hitler had agreed with Stalin on the partition of the country immediately prior to the war, the Red Army invaded Poland on 17 September 1939. For 21 months, until the German War against the Soviet Union, Poland came under the double rule of two extreme occupation powers. Though there were mixed occupations in other states like Yugoslavia or Greece, no other country was subjugated by two such radical though antithetical regimes at the same time. Accordingly, Poland offers almost ideal conditions for the synchronic comparison of the occupier, but also of the experience of the occupied during the period of September 1939 to June 1941. Within this context limited by time and space, comparisons between National Socialist and Stalinist structures and logics are much easier to achieve than in the macro- level comparisons undertaken during the last two decades. This study will on the one hand analyse concepts, discourses and practices of occupation, on the other hand perceptions and actions within the occupied society. Its focus rest on the occupiers efforts to change Polish society by violence, predominantly by mass deportations. Both the German and the Soviet occupiers deported around 400,000 Polish citizens each within a short time span of approximately 17 months. In the case of German deportations, Christian and Jewish Polish citizens were transported within Poland, in first place from the Western to the Central part of the country. Soviet authorities deported Poles, Jews as well as Ukrainians and Belorussians to the interior of the Soviet Union. In both cases parts of the Polish elites were simultaneously exterminated, and mass arrests of suspected resisters were undertaken. Only the German occupiers, however, especially targeted the Jewish minority in Poland, inmates of psychiatric institutions and Roma. On the basis of these considerations, the following research questions arise: What were the basic concepts of Nazi German and Soviet elites for Poland, especially for Polish society, both before and during the war? Which goals did both regimes pursue with the annexing of the newly conquered areas, and how did both regimes try to legitimize their occupation, both within the institutions and within societies? Which groups were targeted and what practices of violence were applied, especially during the deportations? How did the victims of deportations, but also the other parts of Polish society respond to the two deportation regimes? Are there any broader conclusions to be drawn about the nature and logics of the two different regimes?

The project aimed to systematically study the forced resettlements carried out by both the German and Soviet occupying powers. It focused on the objectives, implementation, and effects of the deportations on the affected individuals as well as on the broader Polish population. The comparison of the two regimes sought to highlight similarities and differences without explaining the deportations within the framework of totalitarianism. More than 700,000 people were affected by the forced relocations. They were taken from their homes overnight, loaded into freight cars with minimal luggage and deported to remote areas. The project was based on a wide range of sources in different languages, including German, Russian, Polish, and Ukrainian. This enabled a differentiated view of the deportations from the perspective of the various actors and those affected and provided a comprehensive insight into the implementation of the deportations in both occupation zones. The understanding of the German occupation administration, which was better examined, was deepened in particular through the thorough analysis of the files on the central "Umwandererzentralstelle" (UWZ), which was responsible for coordinating deportations. In this context, the interplay between different administrative levels and institutions involved in carrying out the deportations was also examined, which attempted to implement their own ideas at various levels, leading to tensions. The Soviet deportation administration was also analyzed in detail. The so-called "Trojki", a temporary association of various NKVD employees, were of particular importance. The investigation of Soviet deportation practice made it possible to reconstruct the functioning of these institutions and their personal structures. Despite some superficial similarities in the implementation of the deportations, the German and Soviet administrative structures exhibited decisive differences. The German deportation policy was more closely linked to a comprehensive settlement policy, while the Soviet Union was primarily concerned with political cleansing. A central result of the project was the reconstruction of the fate of the deported people. It not only sheds light on the brutal effects of the deportations, but also shows how the deportees tried to shape their fate despite their extreme plight. It also showed that the societies in the occupied territories had different reactions to the deportations. Those who stayed behind reacted with support, indifference, or even became accomplices. In summary, the project contributed to a deeper understanding of the deportations by shedding light on the various institutional and societal dimensions. It shows how both totalitarian regimes used forced relocation as a means to consolidate their power and offers new insights into the complex processes of occupation.