Military and Masculinities in the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy

The project "Universal Conscription between Acceptance and Refusal: Military and Masculinities in the Austro- Hungarian Monarchy (1868 - 1914/18)" asks in how far hegemonic gender constructions of the 19th century were relevant for everyday experience, attitudes, and self-images of conscript soldiers inside and outside the `total institution` of the military. It inquires after the social, mental and gender implications of universal conscription, which was introduced in the Austrian Empire as late as in 1868. Notwithstanding many obstructions, universal conscription effected a broad acceptance of the military, which around 1900 enjoyed an historically unprecedented public reputation - in spite of the massive critique, uttered especially by social democrats and pacifists, of contemporary `militarism` and military `slave-driving`. What was decisive for universal conscription to win through in the 19th century was, as is emphasised by recent international research, not only ist linkage, developed in the aftermath of the French Revolution, with the constructs of `nation` and `citizen` - a discursive equation the actual effectiveness of which has yet to be critically examined in regard to the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, where the developmental processes of nation and state did not match. Aside from its function as a "school of the nation", universal conscription was considered to fulfil central gender political functions, since military and warfare were seen as synonyms of a specific masculinity which any unmarried young man should be brought up to, in principle. The military was stylised as a "school of manliness". Its claim to discipline the recruits acquired a new qualitative dimension, rooting in the civil order of the sexes which was defined as `natural`. Some of the men concerned, their families, a few women, and at times even communities, nonetheless sought to evade such standardisation. This is another thematic complex of the project, which will therefore also study resistance against the disciplinary power of the military and forms of soldierly refusal - from breach of subordination to desertion. What is of central interest in the latter topic is its connection with concurring, non-hegemonic or peripheral concepts of masculinity, or pejorative attributions of non-masculinity in such contexts. The project combines approaches towards discourses on the Austro-Hungarian army in general with detailed key studies, which will be confined to the region of modern Austria. Sources to be used are newspapers, military journals, relevant military works, statistics, service regulations and laws, military court records, community archive materials, self-testimonies.

One main purpose of this project was to examine the complex meanings and gender implications of universal conscription in Austro-Hungary. A detailed look at the discourse surrounding this system of recruitment made it possible to identify global developments, but also to clarify the system`s unique characteristics, most of which are the result of the multi-national character of the Austro-Hungarian army. Even in the era of European nationalism, this army was constructed as a "Schule des Volkes" ("People`s School") and as a primarily dynastic institution, although its civilian functions were defined mostly along ethnic lines and hierarchies. However, the close connection between new war tactics and the corresponding ideals of common soldiers/military masculinities was similar in other European countries. This was also the case for the at the time existing visions of future wars, which included reflections on national (or peoples) armies, modern weapon systems and European armament race, and were the subject of intense debates in Austria. The implementation and enforcement of universal conscription was accompanied by many problems, obstacles and conflicts that can not be reduced to nationalistic conflicts within the Habsburg Monarchy only. To exemplify this, the project also examined communal, familiar and individual interests which run counter to triennial military service, military exercises of reservists and the linked obligation to register every year. Statistic findings show a low rate of men capable for military service, which varied from 12,7 and 27,7 per cent between 1968 and 1910; furthermore, the rate of those who did not appear for physical examination in some (south)eastern countries of the Monarchy climbed dramatically in the years before the First World War. After having looked at the political dimension of universal conscription, it became evident that both, authorizations and increases of the yearly recruit contingents and military budgets were always the subject of heavy parliamentary controversies. Some higher officers therefore advocated for the abolition of universal conscription; other officers constructed very martial and trend-setting leading figures of soldiers who were supposed to save the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy seen as doomed. Within the barracks, the regime of "drill" was maintained then, in spite of all the debates at that time on a more humane education of men and some liberal reforms after 1968. Self testimonies often describe frequent abuses when imposing disciplinary punishment, especially against young recruits. However, subjective sources as a whole draw a multifaceted picture of the meanings of military socialisation. It cannot be viewed as either glorifying nostalgia or as sole subjection under the all-embracing regime of a "total institution". This is especially valid for lower-class men to whom the army offered the chance for professional and social advancement, and thus for an account of masculinity. Within the frame of a conflict-orientated analysis of military every-day life in- and outside the peace garrisons, the experiences of those men were compared with those who did not succeed - be it because they often violated the imperative of subordination, or because they deserted, or stole from their comrades, etc.